The most powerful goddess in the ancient Mesopotamian world was known as Inanna during the early period, and then Ishtar from around the 3rd millennium BCE onwards. She was a strong and sexual goddess associated with both love and beauty, and war and conflict. She was at the center of Mesopotamian religion, seen as a fertility goddess ensuring the agricultural prosperity of the people of the Fertile Crescent, a patroness of the king, ensuring their power, and was linked to divine order and justice. Read on to learn more about this complex goddess.
Inanna vs Ishtar
The deities Inanna and Ishtar are considered the same goddess in ancient Mesopotamia, but belong to different linguistic and cultural periods.
Inanna is the Sumerian name for the goddess. Sumerian was the language of the earliest Mesopotamian civilization (roughly 4th to 3rd millennium BCE). Ishtar is the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian name for the goddess. Akkadian (and its dialects, Babylonian and Assyrian) were Semitic languages that eventually supplanted Sumerian as the dominant spoken languages in Mesopotamia, starting around the mid-3rd millennium BCE with the rise of the Akkadian Empire.
As Akkadian-speaking peoples gained prominence and absorbed much of Sumerian culture, their existing deities often merged with Sumerian ones. Inanna and Ishtar, likely initially separate deities, became so extensively identified with each other that they were effectively considered the same goddess under different names.
Goddess of Love & Beauty
Inanna was considered the goddess of love and beauty, which intertwined her with ideas of fertility, prosperity, and social order.
Inanna was revered as the embodiment of passionate love and sexual yearning. Many Sumerian poems and hymns depict her as a young woman with intense desires, actively pursuing her chosen consort, Dumuzid (later Tammuz). These narratives often portray the excitement and intimacy of courtship and sexual union. People would appeal to Inanna for success in love, for fertility, and to resolve issues of unrequited love or impotence.
Sexuality linked her to the fertility of the land and the procreation of people and animals, essential in a society dependent on agriculture.
Her sacred marriage (Hieros Gamos) was a central ritual in Mesopotamian religion, particularly in her cult center of Uruk. During the New Year festival, the reigning king would ritually “marry” a high priestess representing Inanna. This sacred sexual union was believed to symbolically re-enact the divine marriage of Inanna and Dumuzid, thereby ensuring the fertility and prosperity of the land for the coming year. It legitimized the king’s rule and brought blessings to the city.
Inanna was also associated with uninhibited sexual expression. Some texts suggest a link to sacred prostitution, where certain priestesses (like the nin-gig) engaged in ritual sex, believed to channel divine fertile energy.
Deity of War, Kingship & Justice
As the opposite side of the coin, Inanna was also a goddess of war and conflict. More than just a patron of soldiers, Inanna was actively engaged in the brutal realities of warfare. She was depicted as a fierce and aggressive deity who delighted in battle. Hymns often describe her as “roaring like a storm,” “wearing a necklace of dead men’s heads,” or having “blood on her mace.”
Kings and generals would invoke Inanna before battles, seeking her favor for victory. She was believed to infuse warriors with courage and to strike fear into the hearts of their enemies. Her presence on the battlefield was seen as a guarantee of success, often achieved through overwhelming force and even cruelty.
Her role in military might linked Inanna with the institution of kingship. Rulers sought her blessing and used the military success she granted to legitimize their rule. A king’s ability to conquer and maintain his domain was often attributed directly to Inanna’s favor.
Several myths reflected her martial prowess. In Inanna and Ebih, Mount Ebih (a mountain range) dared to challenge her authority, Inanna unleashed her fury upon it, destroying its forests, rivers, and wildlife, turning it into a desolate wasteland. In The Bull of Heaven in the Epic of Gilgamesh, after Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar’s (Inanna’s) advances, she unleashes the monstrous Bull of Heaven upon Uruk. This act of divine retribution causes widespread destruction and famine. In the Punishment of Shukaletuda, after a gardener named Shukaletuda rapes her in her sleep, Inanna systematically hunts him down and brings terrible plagues and destruction upon the land until he is found and punished.
These stories also reflect Inanna’s role as a goddess of war and justice, though the sun god Shamash was the chief deity of divine justice. In the myth of Inanna and Enki, Inanna travels to Eridu, the city of Enki (the god of wisdom and creation), and by cunning, intoxicating Enki, she persuades him to bestow upon her the me (pronounced “may”). The me are divine decrees, fundamental principles, and institutions that govern civilization, culture, and society. They encompass everything from kingship, priesthood, various arts and crafts, wisdom, truth, justice, warfare, music, prostitution, and even various vices. By acquiring the me and bringing them to Uruk (her cult center), Inanna effectively becomes a powerful guardian and enforcer of these divine laws and societal norms.
Inanna’s Descent into the Underworld
The myth of the Descent of Inanna to the Underworld is one of the most famous and pivotal narratives in Mesopotamian mythology. The myth begins with Inanna, the Queen of Heaven, adorned in her finest royal garments and jewelry, deciding to descend to the “Great Below,” the Sumerian Underworld, ruled by her older sister, Ereshkigal, the Queen of the Dead.
Her stated reason for the journey varies slightly in different versions, but often she claims to be attending the funeral rites for Ereshkigal’s husband, Gugalanna (the Bull of Heaven, slain by Gilgamesh in another myth). However, it’s widely interpreted that Inanna’s true motivation was to extend her dominion, to conquer or at least exert influence over the realm of death, a territory beyond her usual control.
Before her descent, Inanna prudently instructs her loyal servant, Ninshubur, that if she does not return after three days, Ninshubur is to seek help from the great gods Enlil, Nanna, and especially Enki, to plead for Inanna’s rescue.
Inanna then approaches the outer gate of the Underworld, demanding entry from the gatekeeper, Neti. Ereshkigal, furious at her sister’s intrusion, orders Neti to allow Inanna to pass through each of the seven gates of the Underworld, but with a specific ritual: at each gate, Inanna must remove one piece of her divine regalia or clothing.
- At the first gate, her crown is removed.
- At the second, her measuring rod and line.
- At the third, her lapis lazuli necklace.
- At the fourth, her breastplate.
- At the fifth, her gold ring.
- At the sixth, her lapis lazuli measuring stick.
- At the seventh, her royal robe.
By the time she reaches Ereshkigal’s throne room, Inanna is naked, stripped of all her power, symbols, and protection, and thus utterly vulnerable. The Anunnaki, the seven judges of the Underworld, pass judgment against her. Ereshkigal then casts the “eye of death” upon Inanna, speaks the “word of wrath” against her, and Inanna is transformed into a corpse and hung upon a hook on the wall.
Three days and three nights pass. Ninshubur, faithful to her mistress’s instructions, laments and goes to the great gods. Enlil and Nanna refuse to help, stating that Inanna sought power where she should not have. However, Enki, the god of wisdom, creation, and water, is moved by Ninshubur’s pleas.
Enki creates two androgynous beings from the dirt under his fingernails: the kurgarra (or kurgarru) and the galatur. These beings are sent to the Underworld, instructed not to use force but to empathize with Ereshkigal’s suffering. Ereshkigal, who is depicted as being in the throes of birth pains or grieving, is soothed by their sympathetic groans and lamentations. In her gratitude, she offers them any gift they desire. They request Inanna’s corpse.
Ereshkigal grants their wish. The kurgarra and galatur sprinkle the “food of life” and “water of life” upon Inanna, and she is resurrected.
However, the laws of the Underworld dictate that no one can return from the Land of No Return without a substitute. Inanna is escorted by fearsome galla demons as she ascends, tasked with finding someone to take her place. She finds several people in mourning for her and spares them. Finally, she comes upon her consort, Dumuzid, seated on his throne, celebrating and showing no signs of mourning her. Enraged by his apparent indifference, Inanna orders the galla to seize him as her replacement.
Dumuzid appeals to the sun god Utu for help and is briefly transformed into a snake, but eventually, he is captured and dragged down to the Underworld. Ultimately, a compromise is reached through the intervention of Dumuzid’s sister, Geshtinanna: Dumuzid will spend half the year in the Underworld, and Geshtinanna will spend the other half, representing the cyclical nature of death and rebirth, often linked to the agricultural cycle.
This myth reflects the ambitious and power-hungry nature of the goddess, but also shows her vulnerability as she needs assistance to escape the underworld. Her death and rebirth in the myth are a symbol of her relationship with fertility. Her anger at Dumuzid for not mourning her reflects her vengeful nature.
Inanna in the Mesopotamian Pantheon
The story of Inanna’s Descent into the Underworld also places Inanna within the wider Mesopotamian pantheon.
Inanna’s parentage varies in different traditions, which speaks to her antiquity and the regional variations in her cult. Most commonly, she is depicted as the daughter of Nanna/Sin (the moon god) and Ningal. In this lineage, her twin brother is Utu/Shamash (the sun god), the god of justice. This places her firmly within a powerful celestial family. Her older sister is Ereshkigal, the queen of the Underworld, while Inanna herself is queen of Heaven.
Unlike many goddesses who gained prominence primarily as consorts of major male deities (e.g., Ninlil with Enlil, Damkina with Enki), Inanna’s power was largely inherent and independent. While she had a consort, Dumuzid/Tammuz, their relationship was often tumultuous, and she was certainly not defined solely by him.
Symbolism and Iconography
Ancient Mesopotamian art, particularly cylinder seals, plaques, and monumental reliefs, provides invaluable insights into how Inanna was depicted and her symbols.
- The Eight-Pointed Star (or Rosette): This is arguably Inanna’s most recognizable symbol. It represents her identification with the planet Venus, which appears as both the “Morning Star” (her warrior aspect, rising before the sun) and the “Evening Star” (her aspect as goddess of love and beauty, appearing after sunset). The eight points likely symbolize her dominion over the four cardinal directions and the intermediate points, signifying her universal reach. It also appeared alongside the crescent moon (Sin) and the rayed solar disk (Shamash) in celestial triads, highlighting her place in the divine cosmos.
- The Lion: The lion is Inanna’s most prominent animal attribute, symbolizing her immense strength, ferocity, courage, and destructive power, particularly in her role as a goddess of war. She is frequently depicted standing on the back of a lion, or riding in a chariot pulled by lions, or accompanied by one or more lions.
- Weapons and Armor: To emphasize her martial aspect, Inanna/Ishtar is often shown fully armed. Her weapons included swords, maces, bows, and arrows. Sometimes, she is depicted with a “bundle of weapons” emanating from her shoulders or back, a powerful visual shorthand for her readiness for combat.
- Nude or Semi-Nude Female Figures: In her aspect as goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, Inanna is frequently depicted as a nude or semi-nude female figure, often emphasizing her sexual organs. These representations are abundant on plaques and amulets, especially in earlier periods.
- The Reed-Bundle or Ring-Post: In very early Sumerian iconography (Uruk period, 4th millennium BCE), Inanna’s symbol was a ring-headed gatepost or a stylized bundle of reeds with looped tops. This symbol was also the written cuneiform sign for her name (𒈹). This symbol is believed to represent the entrance to her temple or shrine (particularly the Eanna temple in Uruk), or perhaps even a stylized representation of a granary or a gateway to fertility.
- The Rosette: Often appearing alongside or interchangeably with the eight-pointed star, the rosette is a stylized floral design, connecting her to beauty, gardens, and the flourishing of nature. In the Neo-Assyrian period, it sometimes even eclipsed the eight-pointed star in prominence.
- Attire and Adornments: In myths like her Descent to the Underworld, Inanna is described as wearing elaborate royal garments and valuable jewelry (crown, necklace, breastplate, gold ring), emphasizing her divine status and immense wealth. The removal of these items signifies her loss of power.
Worship of Inanna
The cult of Inanna/Ishtar was one of the most widespread, vibrant, and enduring in ancient Mesopotamia. Inanna’s most ancient and significant cult center was the city of Uruk (modern Warka), one of the earliest and most influential urban centers in Sumer.
Her main sanctuary in Uruk was the Eanna (“House of Heaven”). This was not just a single temple but a vast and monumental complex that evolved over millennia. It was a focal point for both religious worship and the city’s economic and administrative life, featuring impressive architecture, courtyards, altars, and intricate decorations like cone mosaics.
Beyond Uruk, Inanna/Ishtar had temples in virtually every major city across Mesopotamia, including Nippur, Ur, Kish, Sippar, Babylon, and later, Nineveh and Assur in Assyria.
Inanna’s cult involved a rich array of rituals and festivals, often reflecting her domains of fertility, love, and war, as well as the cyclical nature of the seasons. The Sacred Marriage (Hieros Gamos) was perhaps the most significant and elaborate ritual. Annually, particularly during the New Year festival (Akitu festival in later periods), the reigning king would ritually unite with a high priestess who embodied Inanna. This symbolic sexual union, often accompanied by love songs and elaborate banquets, was believed to ensure the fertility of the land, the abundance of crops and livestock, and the continued prosperity and legitimate rule of the king. It re-enacted the divine marriage of Inanna and Dumuzid.
Lamentation Rituals were connected to the myth of Inanna’s Descent; rituals of lamentation for Dumuzid were also important. Daily and seasonal offerings of food, drink, incense, and valuable items were made to her statues in temples. Grand processions were common, where her image might be carried through the city, accompanied by music, dance, and ecstatic displays. Her festivals could be joyous celebrations of love and fertility, sometimes involving revelry and sanctioned sexual expression. Conversely, they could also include martial displays, reflecting her warrior aspect.
Inanna’s cult was served by a diverse and often unconventional priesthood, with both male and female clergy. A particularly notable class of priests were the gala (Sumerian) or kalû (Akkadian). These were male priests primarily associated with singing laments and elegies, especially for Inanna and Dumuzid. They were known for adopting feminine characteristics, singing in the eme-sal dialect (a Sumerian dialect usually associated with female speakers and goddesses), and sometimes taking female names. Some texts even suggest gender-blurring or trans identities among them, reflecting Inanna’s power to “turn a man into a woman and a woman into a man.”
Other cultic personnel, such as the assinnu and kurgarra, were also associated with Inanna’s cult and were often depicted as gender-ambiguous or involved in ecstatic, sometimes self-mutilating, rituals.
A towering figure in Mesopotamian history was Enheduanna (c. 23rd century BCE), daughter of Sargon of Akkad. She was appointed High Priestess of Nanna in Ur, but she also composed powerful hymns to Inanna, playing a crucial role in the syncretism of Inanna and Ishtar and solidifying the goddess’s prominence across the Akkadian Empire.
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