Manichaeism emerged in the 3rd century CE out of the teachings of a Persian prophet called Mani, who lived in the Sasanian Empire between 216 and 277 CE. The Sasanians ruled in what is today Iran from 224 to 651 CE, and Manichaeism remained popular there until the end of the Empire. There is also evidence that it was practiced as far east as China for several centuries and as far west as the Roman Empire until it was persecuted by the newly Christian Roman Empire. Augustine of Hippo famously once followed the religion, which he later criticized in his Confessions.
Manichaeism centers on a dual cosmology that focuses on a struggle between good and evil, or light and darkness. Mankind has a core of light, but man himself and the world also contain darkness. The struggle for mankind is to reject the darkness and fill themselves with life so that they can escape the cycle of reincarnation and ascend to the heaven of light.
Who Was Mani?
Mani was born near Ctesiphon in modern Iraq, which was then part of the Parthian Empire, in 216 CE. His parents were part of a Jewish-Christian Gnostic sect called Elcesaites, which framed Mani’s early spiritual thinking. Their beliefs included recurring incarnations of the heavenly apostles, one of whom was Christ.
From the ages of 12 to 24, Mani had visionary experiences of a “spiritual twin” known as his syzygos. This led Mani to leave his father’s religion and follow a new religious calling. This led him to travel to India, where he studied Hinduism, Buddhism, and other philosophies.
When Mani started writing his own spiritual thoughts, he wrote in late-Aramaic Syriac language, common in the region, but he wrote one book in Middle Persian, which was presented to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I. He also reportedly invented his own version of the Syriac script known as the Manichaean alphabet, which he used in all his texts, perhaps as proof of authenticity.
When at court, Mani reportedly performed miracles such as levitation, teleporting, and healing. He also became known as a famed painter. He wore bright clothing associated with Eastern magicians.
While it seems unlikely that the Sasanian emperor himself became an adherent of Mani’s teachings, he was patronized by Shapur and his successor Hormizd. His religion spread quickly, competing with Zoroastrianism and Christianity. It was supported by many high-ranking politicians, and missionary proselytizing was common. This won Mani the ire of the powerful Zoroastrian clergy, and he died in prison “on death row,” awaiting execution in 277 CE, under the Zoroastrian emperor Bahram I.
Mani’s death was depicted as a crucifixion, deliberately drawing a parallel with Jesus. There is evidence that his body was mutilated and displayed post-mortem.
Sacred Texts of Manichaeism
In 1969, a parchment codex written in Greek was found near Asyut in Upper Egypt. Later dated to c. 400 CE, it has been designated the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis, because it is held at the University of Cologne. It contains an account of Mani’s life and also a summary of his religious teachings.
This is considered the most reliable source for Manichaeism. It is also the smallest ancient book yet discovered, measuring just 4.5 by 3.8 cm. The text is actually called On the Origin of His Body, and the text suggests that it was translated into Greek from Eastern Aramaic or Old Syriac. There are other relevant accounts including the Fihrist by Ibn al-Nadim, and several anti-Manichaean polemics such as the Acta Archelai from the 4th century CE.
The canon of Mani’s writings included 6-8 books, all but one in Syriac. Only the Shapuragan, presented to the emperor, was written in Persian. None survives in complete form, and they have been reconstructed from numerous fragments. Names of the other books include the Book of Giants (which expands on Genesis), the Fundamental Epistle, and the Living Gospel. He also wrote the holy book of Manichaeism called Arzhang. It is also known as The Book of Pictures, as it was illustrated by Mani himself.
Teachings of Manichaeism
From the beginning, Mani envisioned his religion as universal, and therefore “transcultural,” which is part of the reason it was able to spread so far. This is also why Mani’s paintings were as important as his texts when it came to spreading his religion since it was a way to communicate meaning without the written word.
The underlying principle of Manichaeism is a dualism between light and darkness or good and evil. The world was created by the Great Lord of Light, but the Father of Darkness coveted his creation and infiltrated this world of light with his darkness. Therefore, the Father of Light called on the Mother of Life to send her children, Original Man, into battle against evil with five shields of light, which were lost in the battle. Original Man became trapped in the world of darkness. Beings of darkness could then start devouring the light in the world.
The Mother of Life, the Living Spirit, and His Five Sons (Reason, Mind, Intelligence, Thought, and Understanding) then started to shape the world from the bodies of the evil beings that have swallowed light. Therefore, the world is made up of both good and evil. They created heavens and earths, with the sun, moon, and stars all created from light, and the waxing and waning of the moon representing the changing balance of light and darkness. Men were also created, each with a spark of light inside of them.
But darkness also hung great demons in the demons, and they cursed men and women to become sexually aroused, increasing their darkness. It was only when god sent Jesus to Adam and Eve to teach them about the light in their bodies that the possibility of salvation emerged. They copulated and made mankind, each with light trapped in their bodies, but with the possibility to expel darkness and become pure light.
The world is envisioned as a rectangular parallelepiped enclosed by walls of crystal above which three domes exist, representing the three heavens.
The Path to Salvation
Manichaeism suggests that salvation is possible through education, self-denial, fasting, and chastity. Following artistic pursuits can also be a tool, since Mani believed that the arts were of the same esteem as the divine spirit, suggesting that the creation of art was comparable to god’s creation of living forms and therefore the experience of art was a divine act.
Followers of the religion were organized in a church structure, divided into a class of “elects” and “auditors.” Only the elects were required to follow the laws strictly, while the auditors helped care for them, hoping to be reincarnated as an elect in a future life. This mirrors Buddhist teachings of reincarnation until the soul can reach Nirvana.
All members of the church observed daily prayers at specific hours, the auditors four times a day and the elect seven times a day. Every prayer starts with ablutions with water, and the person then prostrates themselves on the ground and rises again 12 times. They do this turned towards the sun during the day and the moon at night, and when the moon is not visible, facing north.
Jesus himself appears in Manichaeism in three forms. Jesus the Luminous, who woke Adam from his slumber and revealed to him the divine origins of the soul and his painful captivity in the material world. Jesus the Messiah, a wholly divine being who acted as the prophet of the Jews. Jesus the Sufferer, who was crucified, whose crucifixion was the savior of men. But the Jesus who will return at the end of days is Mani, who is also the final prophet delivering the final revelation.
Mani also presented himself as the reincarnation of Buddha, having studied Buddhism during his travels to India. This was part of the reason for the popularity of his religion in the East.
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