In ancient Egyptian religion, Anubis was the jackal-headed god of the dead, considered a protector of the dead who guided them on their journey into the afterlife. Anubis is actually the Greek rendering of the name, better rendered as “Anpu” or “Inpu” in ancient Egyptian, meaning “to decay.” He was also called the first of the Westerners, with the underworld imagined in the west where the sun sets.
Functions of Anubis
Anubis had various functions associated with the dead in ancient Egyptian religion. His earliest function was as the protector of graves and cemeteries, often described as such in surviving inscriptions.
He was also associated with the act of embalming, which was an essential part of preparing someone for the journey into the afterlife. He is often depicted in the Book of the Dead engaging in the embalming process.
He was also often depicted as a guide of the dead, showing them the way into the afterlife. When they arrive in the afterlife, he is then the administrator of the weighing of the hearts ceremony, which weighs the heart of the deceased against the feather of Ma’at (truth) to see if they are worthy of living in the afterlife. Those who do not pass the test are devoured by the monster Ammit, condemning them to oblivion.
Whether depicted as a jackal or a man with the head of a jackal, he was depicted black instead of the brown of real jackals, a color linked with fertility, suggesting he was also associated with fertility through the process of birth, death, and renewal.
Historical Evolution
Like most ancient Egyptian deities, the role of Anubis and his importance in religion changed over the millennia.
Old Kingdom
Anubis emerged early in Egyptian history, with evidence as early as the 1st Dynasty (c. 3100-2890 BCE). Mostly associated with Lower Egypt, from this early time, he was assimilated with a similar god from Upper Egypt called Wepwawet.
Abunis was seen as a protector of graves, represented as a jackal, as jackals often lived around cemeteries, where they dug up shallow graves. In the principle of like counters like, the protector of the grave was also depicted as a jackal. The earliest rendering of his name in the Old Kingdom included a jackal as the final hieroglyph. At the time, he was considered the most important god of the dead and the ruler of the afterlife.
From early times, the body was preserved with sweet-smelling herbs and plants that they believed Anubis would sniff, letting those who smelled pure pass. Those he deemed unworthy, Anubis took and defeated with nine bones, giving him the epithet “ruler of the bows.”
Middle Kingdom
During the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1700 BCE), Osiris eclipsed Anubis as the principal god of the dead and the ruler of the afterlife. This also saw a change in his parentage. He was initially seen as a son of the sun god Ra, but in the New Kingdom, he became the illegitimate son of Osiris with his other sister, Nephthys, rather than his wife, Isis. He was then adopted by Isis, and he helped her invent the process of embalming to resurrect Osiris. This seems to have been an attempt to align the two ancient traditions. This is also when Anubis became more commonly depicted as a man with the head of a jackal.
At his time, he also became the patron of lost souls, including orphans, the ones abandoned by Osiris.
Late Pharaonic Era
In the late Pharaonic era (c. 664-332 BCE), Anubis emerged as the principal god who guided the dead on their journey into the afterlife, making him a “psychopomp.” In this capacity, he was sometimes associated with the Eye of Horus, the vision of which lights the way.
Tombs in the Valley of the Kings were often sealed with images of Anubis to protect the grave and the soul.
During this period, he also became associated with necromancy and could be summoned to communicate with the dead.
Ptolemaic Egypt
During Ptolemaic Egypt, as the influence of Greek religion entered Egypt, Anubis became associated with the god Hermes, a messenger of the gods who also guided the dead on their journey to the underworld. Often called Hermanubis, he had a cult center at Hardai or Cynopolis, the city of dogs. He also had a place near Saqqara called Anubeion, where a shrine and cemetery of mummified dogs and jackals was discovered.
Apuleius’ The Golden Ass suggests that he continued to be recognized in the same function by the Romans. He then appeared in alchemical literature in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
Worship
Anubis’ priests were mostly practitioners of mummification and wore jackal masks during the embalming process.
Story of the Two Brothers
An unusual story from the 19th dynasty (c. 2686-2613 BCE) reveals another side of Anubis. Call “The Tale of Two Brothers,” it says that Anubis had an older brother Bata, a lesser-known bull-god. The pair is living on a farm with Anubis’ wife, who is much younger than him, so they appear more parental. When Anubis is away, she tries to seduce Bata, and he angrily rejects her, so she tells Anubis that he attached her. Anubis attempts to kill Bata in revenge. He swears his innocence, cuts off his penis, and throws it into crocodile-infested waters to prove it.
Anubis returns home and kills his wife, while the gods take pity on Bata and create a wife for him. But she, too, is unfaithful and leaves him to be with a pharaoh. Bata hatches a plan and disguises himself as a tree, which his wife orders to be cut down. But on her order, a splinter flies into her mouth, impregnating her, and Bata is reborn from her. Upon his ascension to the throne, he appointed his brother as his successor.
While the story is confusing, it suggests a connection between Anubis and kingship.
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