The Roman practice of augury was central to the religion of the Roman state, used to understand the will of divine and influence decision making processes. Far from being mere superstition, augury was a sophisticated system of interpreting omens, primarily from the behavior of birds, to discern the gods’ approval or disapproval of proposed actions. It was a cornerstone of Roman religiosity, ensuring that virtually no significant public or private undertaking commenced without first seeking the divine sign.
What is Augury?
At its core, augury (from the Latin augurium, derived from augur, meaning “interpreter of omens”) was the art and science of divining the will of the gods, in the case of the Romans their chief god Jupiter, through the observation of natural phenomena, particularly the flight, calls, and feeding patterns of birds. The practitioner, known as an augur, would interpret these signs (known as auspicia, “things observed from birds”) to determine whether a proposed action was faustum (favorable) or infaustum (unfavorable), propitium (propitious) or aversum (adverse). The Romans believed that the gods communicated their intentions to mortals through these subtle cues, and it was the augur’s sacred duty to accurately read and convey these messages.
The scope of augury extended beyond birds, though avian signs were paramount. It also encompassed the interpretation of thunder and lightning (fulgura), the behavior of certain sacred animals (like the sacred chickens), and extraordinary natural events (portenta or ostenta). However, the classic image of the augur typically involves the observation of birds within a designated sacred space.
The Role of Augury in Roman Culture and Religion
In Cicero’s treatise on how to translate these missives, a work called De Divinatione, the late Republican orator remarked that while some diviners relied on signs from the internal realm (e.g., dream prognosticators, soothsayers), it was an ars (“skilled discipline”) and science to learn to divine the signs of the heavens as a public priest called an augur (1.12).
Augury permeated every stratum of Roman society, from the highest levels of political decision-making to more personal affairs. Its influence was immense and multifaceted:
Political Legitimacy: No major public act – the election of magistrates, the passing of laws, the declaration of war, the commencement of a military campaign, the founding of a city, or even the convening of the Centuriate Assembly – could proceed without favorable auspices. A magistrate elected without proper auspices was considered to lack divine sanction, and their actions could later be retroactively invalidated. This made augury a powerful tool for legitimizing political power and governmental actions.
Military Expeditions: Before marching armies, engaging in battle, or even setting up camp, generals and commanders (who held auspicial rights as magistrates) would meticulously take the auspices. A negative sign could halt an entire campaign, emphasizing the belief that divine favor was more crucial than tactical brilliance.
Foundation of Cities and Temples: The very foundation of Rome itself was said to be sanctioned by augury, with Romulus and Remus famously observing birds. Subsequent city foundations and the dedication of temples also required auspicious signs, ensuring the divine blessing upon these sacred endeavors.
Religious Piety (Pietas): For the Romans, pietas was a core virtue, signifying duty and reverence towards the gods, family, and state. Practicing augury was an act of pietas, a demonstration of their willingness to consult and obey the divine will. To disregard the auspices was considered impietas, an affront to the gods that could incur their wrath.
Social Cohesion: The shared belief in augury fostered a sense of collective destiny and divine guidance within Roman society. It provided a common framework for understanding natural events and integrating them into their daily lives and political processes.
Checks and Balances: While easily abused for political ends, augury also functioned, in theory, as a check on arbitrary power. A negative omen, legitimately interpreted, could force a magistrate or general to reconsider or postpone an action, thus preventing rash decisions.
History and Integration into Roman Religious Practices
The origins of augury are deeply rooted in Italy’s early history, with significant Etruscan influence. The Etruscans were renowned for their sophisticated divination practices, including the interpretation of lightning and entrails (haruspicy). The Romans adopted and adapted many of these practices, integrating them into their nascent religious framework.
The legendary contest between Romulus and Remus over the founding of Rome is often cited as the prime example of augury’s antiquity in Roman tradition. Romulus’s greater number of auspicious birds (twelve vultures to Remus’s six) supposedly granted him divine favor and the right to found the city. This narrative enshrined augury as fundamental to Rome’s very existence.
In the early Republic, the right to take the auspices (ius auspiciorum) was primarily vested in the patrician magistrates. This gave them immense religious and political power. The augurs, initially few in number, were an advisory body to these magistrates, assisting them in interpreting the signs.
Over time, the importance of augury led to the formal establishment of a specialized priesthood: the College of Augurs (Collegium Augurum). Initially, this college consisted of just three patrician members, reflecting their monopoly over religious knowledge.
As the Republic evolved and the plebeians gained more political rights, the College of Augurs also expanded. The Lex Ogulnia in 300 BCE was a landmark moment, increasing the number of augurs to nine and making plebeians eligible for membership. By the late Republic, the number grew further, reaching 15 or 16 members under Sulla and Julius Caesar. This expansion reflected the broader trend of democratizing access to priestly offices, although patrician influence remained strong.
By the mid-Republic, augury was firmly integrated into the state religion (religio publica). It was not a private, personal act of divination, but a public function performed by magistrates and sanctioned by the state through the College of Augurs. Its public nature reinforced its authority and legitimacy.
The Priesthood of Augurs and Their Process
The College of Augurs was one of the four major priestly colleges in Rome (alongside the Pontiffs, Quindecimviri Sacris Faciundis, and Epulones). Augurs were highly respected figures, usually drawn from the most prominent aristocratic families. Membership was for life, and vacancies were filled by co-option, meaning existing members chose their successors.
The Process of Taking the Auspices
The augur or magistrate would select a templum, a ritually defined sacred space within which the observations would be made. This was not necessarily a temple building but an open area, either on the ground or a platform, marked out by the augur’s staff (lituus).
The augur would typically face south, with the east (left) representing favorable signs and the west (right) representing unfavorable ones.
The augur would sit within the templum and intently observe the heavens for signs. The types of signs included:
- Ex tripudiis (from the sacred chickens): This was a particularly common method, especially for military campaigns. Chickens were offered grain. If they ate eagerly and spilled some from their beaks (tripudium solistimum), it was a highly favorable sign. If they refused to eat or ate reluctantly, it was unfavorable.
- Ex caelo (from the sky): Observing thunder and lightning. Lightning from the left was generally auspicious.
- Ex avibus (from birds): This was the quintessential augury. The augur would look for:
- Alites (birds of flight): Such as eagles or vultures, whose flight patterns were observed (e.g., direction, height, number).
- Oscines (birds of omen/song): Such as crows, owls, or ravens, whose calls or caws were interpreted (e.g., location, frequency).
- Ex rebus sinistris (from unusual occurrences): Any unexpected event or sign, though less common.
The augur, armed with their specialized knowledge and understanding of ritualistic precedent, would interpret the signs. The interpretation was not always straightforward and often required careful consideration of multiple factors.
The augur would declare the outcome as either faustum or infaustum for the proposed action. If the auspices were unfavorable, the action would have to be postponed or abandoned. If favorable, it could proceed.
Received, Requested, or Unsought Auspices
Requested Auspices (Auspicium Impetrativum): These were the most common. A magistrate or general would request the augur to take the auspices for a specific proposed action (e.g., “Should I convene the assembly today?” or “Should I march the army tomorrow?”). The augur would then perform the ritual.
Unsought Auspices (Auspicium Oblativum): These were unexpected or unsolicited omens that appeared without being specifically sought. For example, an accidental fall, a sudden peal of thunder, or a bird flying in an unusual pattern. If such an oblatum sign was negative, it was considered a divine prohibition and could halt any ongoing public business, even if previously favorable auspices had been obtained. The interpretation of oblata signs was particularly sensitive, as they could override planned actions.
Received Auspices (Auspicium Acceptum): This term simply refers to the result of an auspice, whether requested or unsought, being formally received and acknowledged.
Famous Augury Events from Roman History
Roman history is replete with instances where augury played a pivotal role, sometimes leading to significant consequences:
- Romulus and Remus: As mentioned, the founding myth of Rome hinges on this first great augural contest. Romulus’s successful augury legitimized his claim to leadership and the chosen site for the city.
- The Battle of the Trebia (218 BCE): During the Second Punic War, Consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus famously disregarded unfavorable auspices before engaging Hannibal’s forces. The sacred chickens refused to eat, and an attendant reportedly threw them into the water in frustration, proclaiming, “If they won’t eat, let them drink!” The ensuing battle was a catastrophic Roman defeat, widely attributed to Longus’s impietas.
- Publius Claudius Pulcher at Drepana (249 BCE): During the First Punic War, Consul Publius Claudius Pulcher also notoriously ignored unfavorable chicken auspices before a naval battle against the Carthaginians. When the chickens refused to eat, he allegedly threw them overboard, declaring, “Since they will not eat, let them drink!” His fleet was decisively defeated, and he later faced a trial and heavy fine for his impiety. This event served as a powerful reminder of the dangers of disregarding divine signs.
- Cicero’s Involvement: The orator Cicero, himself an augur in the late Republic, frequently discussed the importance of augury in his writings. He defended its traditional role in Roman public life, even while acknowledging its potential for political manipulation. His debates with figures like Clodius Pulcher (who used augury to invalidate Cicero’s actions) highlight the political weaponization of the practice.
- Caesar and the Portents: Julius Caesar, particularly towards the end of his life, was surrounded by numerous portents and ill omens, which were widely interpreted as divine warnings against his growing power. Although he reportedly disregarded many of them, his assassination shortly after some of these ominous signs reinforced the Roman belief in divine communication.
Roman augury was far more than a simple act of divination. It was an integral part of the state’s functioning, a powerful legitimizer of authority, and a constant reminder of the gods’ presence in human affairs. While susceptible to political manipulation, its underlying purpose was to ensure that Roman actions were in harmony with divine will, reflecting a profound sense of pietas that guided their civilization for centuries. The augurs, as interpreters of these sacred signs, held immense religious authority, acting as vital intermediaries between the mortal realm and the all-encompassing power of the gods.
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