While Neopagans are pagans, the nuance of language is used to distinguish between the pagan religions that defined ancient cultures and modern takes on pagan philosophy.
This article explains ancient paganism and when and how it started to be referred to as “pagan,” the disappearance of traditional pagan religions, and the modern revival of pagan religions in the form of neopaganism.
The Invention of Paganism
The term pagan, in the sense that we use it today, did not exist until the advent of Christianity. While today we would characterize the religions of ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome as pagan, at the time, they were the majority religions, so they were just “religion.”
Most of these polytheistic religions were animist, which means that a divine spark was seen in most things. This allowed for an infinite number of gods. This allowed the religions to coexist with minimal conflict.
The ancient Greeks, who worshipped Zeus above all others, saw that for the Egyptians this was Ammon, and they assumed they were probably the same god, and so called him Zeus Ammon.
When the Romans expanded into new lands, they encountered new gods, and it seems logical that new places would have new deities. They imported some of them, such as Isis and Serapis, setting up temples for them in Rome.
But if ancient pagans were so religiously tolerant, why did the Romans infamously persecute Christians? This is because Christians were viewed as atheists, who refused to make sacrifices to any gods for the health and prosperity of the state. This contrasts with ancient Jews, who made sacrifices to their god in their temple. The Romans thought that this risked offending the gods and put everyone at risk; therefore, their refusal to sacrifice was considered treason.
When Christianity rose as the dominant religion of the Roman Empire, the new Christian elite in the cities used the term “paganus” to refer to non-Christians. The word meant “country bumpkin” stuck in old ways and not yet “wise” to the modern religion. They also called non-Christians heathens, hellenes, or gentiles.
Over time, the term pagan became increasingly associated with the idea of the worship of “false gods.”
Ancient Religions Lost
The emphasis of Christianity on conversion meant that in many parts of the world, ancient religions were lost with the rise of Christianity. Some elements persisted, incorporated into Christian practice.
The most obvious example is Christmas, as the birthday of Jesus is never recorded in the Bible, but the required travel for the census described in the Bible is unlikely to have happened in the dead of winter. However, December 25th was during the major Roman festival of Saturnalia, during which it was common to feast and exchange gifts. It was also the anniversary of the god Sol Invictus, one of the most important pagan gods in Rome before the conversion to Christianity.
When Christianity was adopted in the Viking world, it aligned closely with Yule, celebrated on the winter solstice, and many Yule traditions became Christmas traditions.
But while elements of the old religions continued, most ancient pagan religions stopped being practiced, with a few notable exceptions such as Judaism and Zoroastrianism. The Egyptians forgot how to read hieroglyphics, manuscripts recording Greek and Roman religion were lost, and the Celtic gods were lost as Druids did not believe in writing down their religious secrets.
The Rise of Neopaganism
The 18th century is known as the Age of Reason, as science and logic came to be prized above all else, and magic and spirituality were dismissed as fantasy. This movement is known as the Enlightenment. As is often the case, extreme logic invoked an extreme response in the form of the Romanticism movement.
The Romantics valued emotion, nature, and the individual experience. As an extension of this, ancient mythology and religion found a new appeal. It was presented as a more natural, pure approach to life. This also fed into the growing patriotism of the day. While Christianity had become a universal religion, ancient religions tended to be more local.
As ancient religions were rediscovered from often fragmentary evidence, they were rebuilt for the modern world. They are called neopagan because they have not been practiced since ancient times, but are a modern religious movement inspired by ancient religions.
Case Study: Wicca
Wicca offers a good case study of how neopagan religions often emerged. It was part of the broader revivalist movement, which also saw renewed interest in the Druids and Celtic religion. People also looked at more recent history, with some claiming that the people accused of witchcraft were not innocent victims, but members of a European-wide witch-cult, which survived in secret to the modern day (though this hypothesis has been firmly disproven). Nevertheless, this theory encouraged many movements. For example, Charles Leland in his 1899 book Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches.
In England, the idea was embraced by Egyptologist Margaret Murray. In her publications in the 1920s and 1930s, she first mentioned many of the symbols now familiar in modern witchcraft, plus rules around covens and sabbats. She also argued that the women of the witch trials did not worship Satan, but rather a pre-Christian nature deity.
Gerald Gardner was inspired by Murray’s ideas. In 1954, he claimed to have encountered surviving members of the hidden witch cult and to have been initiated into their cover in 1939. He then established a coven of his own, passing on what he claimed to have learned. He recorded this knowledge in a Book of Shadows which became the Wiccan “Bible.” He also recorded the results of his own experiments. All members of Wicca are encouraged to create their own Book of Shadows to track their journey.
A Definition of Neopaganism
So, with all that background, can we come up with a definition of neopaganism? It is challenging because so many different people today identify with the term paganism. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify some characteristics that are common to most Neopagans, but don’t necessarily apply universally.
Pagan religions tend to be non-organized in that they are followed by an individual practitioner or small community rather than being a hierarchical institution like the Catholic church. But there are exceptions; for example, Hermetic orders tend to be small but very hierarchical organizations.
Pagan religions are often polytheistic, either drawing on ancient divine pantheons or following an animistic approach, which recognizes divinity in action within the world without necessarily naming it. Pagans can believe in these gods in a literal sense or as a metaphorical tool for relating to powers that are beyond our comprehension.
Pagans tend to believe that everything is sacred, especially nature, and that we can tap into the spiritual energy of the universe through meditation, invocation, rituals, witchcraft, and various other practices.
In most cases, it is an individualistic path. You choose which deities and beliefs speak to you personally, and you are responsible for creating and following your spiritual path. This very often links to a strong moral code, as you are responsible for your actions and their consequences. Pagans often identify with the idea that you can feed the universe with positive energy or diminish it with negative energy. You attract the kind of energy that you project, and what you receive mirrors what you give.
As we have already said, these characteristics do not hold true for all Pagans, but they are ideas that most Neopagans will identify with.
Branches of Neopaganism
So, if there are various branches of Neopaganism, what are they?
It is impossible to provide a complete and comprehensive list, first because we would be here forever, and second, since it is a personal and individualistic belief system, there is no limit to the number of variations that can exist.
But below, we will look at some of the most popular forms of Paganism that are most widely recognized in the Neopagan community today.
Reconstructionist Religions
Reconstructionist religions attempt to reconstruct ancient religions in the modern world. Pagans of this brand might choose to worship the Greek gods, follow the ritual practices of Egyptian priests, or walk in the footsteps of Druids.
Probably the most well-known reconstructed religion is Norse paganism, also known as Heathenry, which is the belief in the old Norse gods, including Odin, Thor, and Freyja. While exactly how this is done is individualistic, enough people identified with this type of Paganism that Asatru was created in Iceland in the 1970s to provide a common banner under which they could identify as an interest group. It is now recognized around the world.
Magic working is not a necessary part of modern Norse paganism, just as it was not in ancient times when only a few people were Volva (Seidr witches) or runemasters (workers of rune magic).
Wicca
We have already mentioned Wicca, which is probably the type of Paganism most represented in pop culture (think The Craft and Charmed). It is a modern witchcraft practice, often but not always associated with the veneration of a great mother goddess and her consort, often but not always portrayed as a horned god. It can be followed by sole practitioners or coven groups led by a high priest or priestess.
Modern Wicca started with Gerald Gardner, and followers of his teachings are known as Gardnerian Wiccans. But today there are many different branches, both formal and informal.
Modern Wicca draws on what is known from historic witchcraft and magic rituals. But it is a thriving and evolving practice in which invention and following your intuition are encouraged.
Non-Wiccan Witchcraft
Not all Pagans who identify themselves as practitioners of witchcraft consider themselves Wiccan. Many follow a more shamanistic or nature-based approach to witchcraft without reference to organized elements such as covens or priests. These, usually sole practitioners, are often referred to as hedge witches.
These practitioners have a lot in common with Wiccans in their use of certain symbols and elements and closely following the cycle of the year and the phases of the moon. Grimoires and Books of Shadows are often used to record knowledge.
Hermeticism
The term Hermeticism originally referred to a religio-philosophical system based on a small number of writings known as Hermetica, which gave birth to scientific approaches to magic in the form of practices such as alchemy. But Hermeticism has since become a term for those who engage in “high magic” or ritual magic, usually within a body or organization with specific teachings and hierarchies.
Probably the most famous example of these is the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, an organization dedicated to the study of the occult, metaphysical, and paranormal. It is a spin-off of Freemasonry and incorporates the hierarchies and secrecy of that order. There are tests to enter new parts of the order and learn new secrets. For several years, the famous occultist Aleister Crowley was associated with the order.
Animism
Animism differs from other types of polytheistic paganism in that it does not necessarily feel the need to name or identify deities. Animism accepts that there is a divine or spiritual force at work in the world, and it can be seen in aspects of life. But they can appreciate and be thankful for these forces without anthropomorphizing them into deities.
Animists often believe that the gods of polytheistic religions are cultural constructions designed to help humans better understand and engage with these forces. They may choose to engage with certain traditional polytheistic gods as a way of engaging with the elements of the world they consider most important.
Secular Paganism
Secular paganism could also be called a nature-based religion. Secular pagans do not necessarily believe in certain deities and could be Polytheists, Christians, Atheists, or anything in between. The core belief is that we are part of nature, rather than masters of it, and that we should live our lives with an abiding love and respect for nature.
Secular Paganism often mixes meditative and ritual practices designed to better understand and control the self with a worldview based on science.
Eclectic Paganism
Eclectic Paganism is kind of a “catch-all” term for those who don’t fit into other types of Paganism. This is for people who identify with the general principles of Paganism but haven’t tied themselves to a single belief system or set of practices.
For example, they might believe in the mother goddess, but not practice witchcraft. They may feel a deep spiritual connection with the universe, which manifests in practices such as reading Tarot cards and cleansing spaces with incense and herbs, but may not necessarily consider these practices linked with any kind of divinity.
Eclectic Pagans often have broad interests in terms of researching different new age practices and approaches.
Meso-Paganism
Meso-Paganism is a term used for practices that are a result of mixing non-Christian religions with Christianity imposed by conquerors, missionaries, or both. Haitian Voodoo and Candomblé in Brazil are probably the best examples, in which African deities are syncretized with Christian Saints and elements of the Christian religion are incorporated into traditional rituals.
While many of the characteristics of Neopaganism apply to Meso-Paganism, followers and practitioners are less likely to identify with the broader Pagan community. These are traditional religions passed down through communities, rather than sought out by individuals. So, while they may not be the dominant religion in a certain place, they have this in common with religions such as Hinduism.
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